The present study explores the traditional knowledge and utilization patterns of indigenous medicinal plants among the tribal communities of the Kalvarayan Hills in Tamil Nadu. A total of 120 respondents were selected through proportionate random sampling from seven villages, and data were collected using structured interviews, household surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Plant specimens were identified using standard floras and expert validation. Analysis using percentage analysis and arithmetic mean showed that 58.33% of respondents had a moderate level of medicinal plant utilization, while 20.83% each reported low and high levels. The most frequently used species were Phyllanthus niruri (93.33%), Abutilon indicum (91.67%) and Terminalia chebula (91.67%) all commonly used for liver disorders, digestive issues, respiratory problems and skin diseases. Preparation methods involved decoctions, pastes, juices and powders, with leaves being the most commonly used plant part. Despite continued relevance, intergenerational knowledge transfer is declining due to modernization, reduced forest access and limited documentation. This trend poses risks to cultural heritage and community health security. The study emphasizes the need for systematic documentation, community herbal gardens, sustainable harvesting and scientific validation to strengthen conservation and support equitable benefit-sharing.
INTRODUCTION
The Kalvarayan Hills, situated in the Eastern Ghats of northern Tamil Nadu are inhabited by indigenous tribal communities mainly the Malayali tribe who have preserved extensive traditional knowledge of medicinal plants for healthcare and medicinal purposes (Mehrzad et al., 2022; Bharathi & Kumar, 2023; Huyen et al., 2023; Sakhnenkova et al., 2023). These communities rely largely on locally available flora to treat common ailments and maintain well-being given their remote forested locations and limited access to modern medical services (Shoghi & Kian, 2022; Kartashev et al., 2023; Petronis et al., 2023; Cantile et al., 2024; Natarajan & Rajendran, 2024). This ethnomedicinal knowledge is primarily transmitted orally across generations and constitutes a critical component of their primary healthcare system (Ouafa et al., 2022; Dkhar & Raghuprasad, 2024).
Globally and in India, traditional medicinal plants play a vital role in supporting community health, especially among marginalized populations with limited access to healthcare. Studies have demonstrated the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective properties of many indigenous plants traditionally used by tribal groups (Viswanathan et al., 2001; Kumar & Lakshmi, 2020; Das et al., 2021; Naik & Panda, 2023; Ghosh et al., 2024). For example, Phyllanthus niruri, widely used for liver disorders, has shown significant chemo-preventive effects in experimental studies (Viswanathan et al., 2001), while Abutilon indicum and Terminalia chebula are well recognized for their anti-inflammatory and digestive benefits, aligning folk and classical Ayurvedic practices (Siddiqi et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2025). Despite the significance of ethnomedicine, key challenges threaten its survival, including rapid environmental degradation, deforestation, migration of youth to urban centres, increasing reliance on allopathic treatments and diminishing intergenerational transmission of traditional knowledge (Dagar & Upadhyay, 2022; Ghosh et al., 2024). These challenges contribute to the gradual erosion of a valuable cultural and healthcare resource.
In the Kalvarayan Hills, however, there remains a lack of comprehensive scientific documentation on the specific patterns of medicinal plant use and associated knowledge dynamics among tribal communities. This gap constrains efforts in biodiversity conservation and the sustainable integration of traditional medicine into rural health frameworks (Naik & Panda, 2023). Thus, systematic documentation is essential for preserving cultural heritage, supporting community health security and guiding policy initiatives.
The present study was carried out to document the indigenous medicinal plants used by tribal communities in the Kalvarayan Hills, to evaluate the extent and pattern of their utilization and to explore the socio-cultural and environmental factors influencing knowledge continuity. The specific objectives are: (1) to identify and catalogue the medicinal plant species and their ethnobotanical uses, (2) to quantify utilization levels among different demographic groups and (3) to assess challenges affecting traditional knowledge transmission. These findings aim to inform conservation strategies, sustainable harvesting practices and the integration of traditional ethnomedical knowledge into public health policy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Survey area
The Kalvarayan hill region lies within the Eastern Ghats and spans rugged, forested terrain conducive to the growth of diverse medicinal plants. Seven tribal villages - Vellimalai, Thodaripattu, Arampondi, Vengodu, Vangikuli, Serapattu and Pottiyam - were selected based on high tribal population density and accessibility during field visits. The geographical location of the study area is presented in Figure 1, which shows the position of Kallakurichi District within Tamil Nadu (Figure 1a) and the specific location of the Kalvarayan Hills within the Kallakurichi district (Figure 1b). This figure provides a visual representation of the study villages and helps contextualize the spatial setting of the research area.
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a) |
b) |
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Figure 1. a). Location of Kallakurichi District in the Tamil Nadu map. b). Location of Kalvarayan hills in the Kallakurichi District map. Source: https://kallakurichi.nic.in/about-district/district-map/ |
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Source and nature of material
The primary material consisted of indigenous medicinal plants identified through direct interaction with tribal farmers and traditional healers. Information collected included local names (Tamil), botanical names, parts used (leaf, root, bark, etc.), preparation methods (decoction, paste, juice), dosage, frequency, duration and specific ailments treated. Plant specimens were cross-verified using standard floras (Matthew, 1983) and authenticated herbarium references available at the Department of Botany, Annamalai University.
Selection of samples
The Kalvarayan Hills comprise 18 revenue tribal villages with a total population of 56,327 of which 45,176 belong to Scheduled Tribes (Census of India, 2011). From these, seven villages were purposively selected based on higher tribal concentration and representation. A proportionate random sampling method was employed to ensure demographic representativeness. With a 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error, a total of 120 respondents were selected as a sample.
Data collection techniques
Field data were collected between January and March 2025 using multiple participatory tools:
All interviews were conducted in Tamil recorded with permission and later transcribed and translated into English.
Statistical analysis
Collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics: percentage analysis, cumulative frequency and arithmetic mean to evaluate the prevalence and intensity of medicinal plant use. Statistical interpretation focused on categorizing utilization levels (low, medium, high) and identifying the most frequently cited species.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Utilization level of medicinal plants
As shown in Table 1, the overall utilization of medicinal plants indicates that the majority of the respondents (58.33%) had moderate use, suggesting a transitional phase in which traditional and modern healthcare systems coexist. Only 20.83% reported high utilization, typically among older individuals and traditional healers, while another 20.83% reported low use, mainly youth and those with regular access to government clinics.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents by level of utilization (n=120)
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S/N |
Category |
Number of Respondents |
Percent |
|
1 |
Low |
25 |
20.83 |
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2 |
Medium |
70 |
58.33 |
|
3 |
High |
25 |
20.83 |
This shift reflects broader socio-cultural changes, including increased education, exposure to media and improved access to primary health centres. Similar trends have been observed in other tribal regions of India (Guo et al., 2022; Singh & Deshmukh, 2022; Khalil, 2023).
Practice-wise utilization of medicinal plants by tribal communities of kalvarayan hills
A total of 18 medicinal plants documented across various ailment categories are presented in Table 2, while representative medicinal plant species are illustrated in Figure 3a-3f.
Table 2. Practice-wise utilization of medicinal plants (n=120)
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S/N |
Local Name |
Common/English Name |
Scientific Name |
Therapeutic Uses |
% of Respondents |
|
1 |
Kizharnelli |
Phyllanthus |
Phyllanthus niruri |
Liver disorders, jaundice |
93.33 |
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2 |
Thuthi |
Country Mallow |
Abutilon indicum |
Liver disorders, anti-inflammatory, digestive |
91.67 |
|
3 |
Arugampul |
Bermuda Grass |
Cynodon dactylon |
Digestive ailments |
50.00 |
|
4 |
Nilavembu |
King of Bitters |
Andrographis paniculata |
Digestive ailments |
48.33 |
|
5 |
Seenthil Kodi |
Guduchi |
Tinospora cordifolia |
Immunity booster |
37.50 |
|
6 |
Siriyanangai |
Green Chirayta |
Justicia adhatoda |
Respiratory conditions |
45.83 |
|
7 |
Vettiver |
Vetiver |
Vetiveria zizanioides |
Skin diseases |
49.17 |
|
8 |
Kodi Avarai |
Butterfly Pea |
Clitoria ternatea |
Memory enhancement, anti-stress |
50.00 |
|
9 |
Mudakathan |
Balloon Vine |
Cardiospermum halicacabum |
Joint pain, rheumatism |
51.66 |
|
10 |
Thoothuvala |
Leucas |
Solanum trilobatum |
Respiratory conditions |
84.17 |
|
11 |
Karunthulasi |
Black Tulsi |
Ocimum tenuiflorum |
Respiratory conditions |
73.33 |
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12 |
Kadukkai |
Chebulic Myrobalan |
Terminalia chebula |
Digestive ailments |
91.67 |
|
13 |
Aavarai |
Field bean |
Lablab purpureus |
Skin disorders, diabetes |
82.50 |
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14 |
Visha Karappan |
Oduvanthalai |
Cleistanthus collinus |
Skin diseases (used cautiously) |
41.67 |
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15 |
Nannari |
Indian Sarsaparilla |
Hemidesmus indicus |
Blood purifier, fever |
67.50 |
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16 |
Sirukurinjan |
Gymnema |
Gymnema sylvestre |
Diabetes management |
55.00 |
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17 |
Kuppaimeni |
Indian Acalypha |
Acalypha indica |
Skin diseases, wound healing |
82.50 |
|
18 |
Adathodai |
Vasaka |
Justicia adhatoda |
Respiratory conditions |
61.67 |
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Figure 2. Percentage of respondents utilizing selected medicinal plants for healthcare in the Kalvarayan Hills (highlighting the dominance of Phyllanthus niruri, Abutilon indicum and Terminalia chebula in local healthcare practices) |
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a) |
b) |
c) |
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d) |
e) |
f) |
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Figure 3. Representative medicinal plants used by tribal communities of the Kalvarayan Hills. a) Abutilon indicum. b) Acalypha indica. c) Ocimum tenuiflorum. d) Phyllanthus niruri. e) Solanum trilobatum. f) Terminalia chebula |
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The percentage distribution of respondents utilizing selected medicinal plants is presented in Figure 2. ”Phyllanthus niruri (Kizharnelli) was the most frequently used plant (93.33%), primarily for treating jaundice and liver disorders-a finding consistent with its known hepatoprotective activity (Singh et al., 2023; Joshi et al., 2025). Its widespread use underscores community trust in time-tested remedies. Abutilon indicum and Terminalia chebula were similarly valued for anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and digestive properties. These species are also integral to Ayurvedic formulations, suggesting overlap between folk and classical systems (Dagar & Upadhyay, 2022; Kumar et al., 2025). Plants like Leucas aspera and Ocimum tenuiflorum are cultivated near homes, enhancing accessibility and reinforcing domestic healthcare practices. In contrast, climbing or less abundant species such as Tinospora cordifolia had lower citation rates (37.50%), likely due to scarcity and difficulty of collection. Some toxic plants, such as Cleistanthus collinus ("Visha Karappan"), were used cautiously under expert supervision for skin diseases, highlighting the nuanced understanding held by traditional practitioners (Gandhale & Tekale, 2021; Kaviya et al., 2024).
Challenges to knowledge transmission
Interviews revealed that fewer than 30% of younger respondents could name more than five medicinal plants or describe their uses. Elders expressed concern about the erosion of knowledge, attributing it to:
These observations echo concerns raised in similar studies across India (Dagar & Upadhyay, 2022).
CONCLUSION
The tribal communities of the Kalrayan Hills continue to depend on indigenous medicinal plants as an essential component of their healthcare practices. The findings highlight the close connection between traditional wisdom and biodiversity conservation, as reflected in the frequent use of medicinal plants such as Phyllanthus niruri, Abutilon indicum and Terminalia chebula by the tribal communities. These species are highly valued for their rich bioactive compounds and for their easy accessibility near homes or in nearby forests, reinforcing a self-sufficient healthcare system. However, the reported decline in the use of some species such as Justicia adhatoda, Alternanthera sessilis and Tinospora cordifolia is a serious concern mainly due to habitat loss and generational shifts. Younger generations increasingly rely on modern healthcare systems leading to a gradual erosion of ethnobotanical knowledge. This trend poses a threat to the sustainability of traditional medicine and the biological-ecological balance of the region. Therefore, urgent efforts are needed to document and preserve indigenous plant knowledge which can contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation and public health policy.
To safeguard this valuable knowledge
Preserving ethnomedical wisdom is not merely about protecting biodiversity-it is about upholding cultural sovereignty and ensuring equitable, resilient healthcare for marginalized populations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors sincerely thank the tribal communities of Kalvarayan Hills for their enthusiastic cooperation and participation during data collection. Special appreciation is extended to the Horticulture Officer of Kalvarayan Hills and the local field staff for their guidance and assistance throughout the study. The authors also thank the Department of Botany, Annamalai University for their assistance in identifying plant species. We commit to sharing the compiled findings with the participating communities in the Tamil language for educational and preservation purposes.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST: None
FINANCIAL SUPPORT: None
ETHICS STATEMENT: Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants after explaining the purpose, procedures, benefits and risks of the study. Participants were assured of confidentiality and the right to withdraw at any time.
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